Yakima County Urban-Wildland Interface Code In 2001, Yakima County adopted the Urban-Wildland Interface Code that sets out regulations to mitigate wildland fire hazards. The CWPP does not replace or alter this code, but supports fire prevention work that seeks to reduce fire hazard and risk to communities in the WUI. The following information is taken from the National Wildfire Programs Database:54 Yakima County has adopted an Urban-Wildland Interface Code that sets out regulations to mitigate wildland fire hazards. The Yakima Ordinance is based on the Model IFCI Ordinance for the UrbanWildland Interface Code found in the Urban-Wildland Interface Code 2000 Handbook (IFCI). The code is also on file at the Yakima County Fire Marshal’s Office.

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Community Risk Assessments 

Land in Yakima County is owned primarily by the Yakama Nation and private landowners but the State of Washington and the federal government also have significant ownership. Federal lands are managed by the Bureau of Land Management, USFWS, USFS, and the Department of Defense (Joint Base Lewis-McChord). State lands include parcels managed by the Washington Department of Natural Resources and Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 

Irrigated crop lands are located primarily in the extensive valleys while dryland farming dominates the upland areas. The western edge of the county lies along the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains and is a transitional area that provides diverse wildlife habitat that ranges from mountainous forestlands to sagebrush steppe. The mild climate, abundance of sunshine and low annual precipitation results in an environment that is potentially very prone to wildland fire. Although much of the native grasslands have been converted for agricultural purposes, there are many areas of native vegetation and fallow farm land that cures early in the summer and remains combustible until winter. If ignited, these areas burn rapidly, potentially threatening people, homes, and other valued resources. 

In order to facilitate a mutual understanding of wildfire risks specific to existing fire management planning areas, the landscape-level wildfire risk assessments in the following sections are based on areas where specific fire management strategies are currently being implemented or where similar terrain or fuel types warrant consideration as a planning area for the purposes of a landscape-scale risk assessment. The planning areas considered in this chapter exhibit specific fire behavior, fuel types, suppression challenges, and mitigation recommendations that make them unique from a planning perspective. 

Overall Fuels Assessment 

The gentle terrain that dominates much of Yakima County facilitates extensive farming and ranching operations. Agricultural fields occasionally serve to fuel a fire after curing; burning in much the same manner as short to tall grassy fuels. Fires in grass and rangeland fuel types tend to burn at relatively moderate intensity with moderate flame lengths, rapid rate of spread, and shortrange spotting. Common suppression techniques and resources are generally quite effective in this fuel type. However, history has shown that this fuel type can behave differently under low humidity, high fuel load, and moderate to high wind conditions. Homes and other improvements can be protected if fuels treatments, defensible space, and structural ignition precautionary measures are adopted. 

Rangelands with a significant shrub component will have much higher fuel loads with greater spotting potential than grass and agricultural fuels. Although fires in agricultural and rangeland fuels may not present the same control problems as those associated with large, high intensity fires in timber, they can cause significant damage if precautionary measures have not been taken prior to a fire event. Wind driven fires in these fuel types spread rapidly and can be difficult to control. During extreme drought and when pushed by high winds, fires in agricultural and rangeland fuels can exhibit extreme rates of spread, which complicates suppression efforts. 

Riparian areas in arid environments often have a higher amount of fuel loading due to the relatively abundant water supply. Vegetation tends to be more abundant and robust in these areas. Fuel loading often compounds year after year as new growth replaces old growth. Deciduous trees and shrubs are common along waterways and contribute to surface fuel loads as they lose their leaves every year. Riparian areas experience a higher amount of recreation use due to various outdoor opportunities (fishing, camping, swimming, etc.). The increased activity may lead to unusually high ignition frequency. 

Woodland fuels are mostly present in the western edge of the county. As you move west the forest transitions from dry deciduous (Oregon White Oak and cottonwood), through dry conifer (ponderosa pine, Yakima-fir), mid-elevation conifer (grand fir, western larch, western hemlock), to high elevation wet conifer (mountain hemlock, pacific silver fir). Wooded areas tend to be on steep terrain intermingled with grass and shrubs providing an abundance of ladder fuels which leads to horizontal and vertical fuel continuity. These factors, combined with arid and windy conditions characteristic of the river valleys in the region, can result in high intensity fires with large flame length and fire brands that may spot long distances. Rates of fire spread tend to be lower than those in the grasslands; however, intensities can escalate dramatically, especially under the effect of slope and wind. Such fires present significant control problems for suppression resources and often results in large wildland fires. 

Furthermore, exceptionally hot and dry summers, overcrowding, and unprecedented forest insect infestations are causing forested areas to become more and more susceptible to severe wildfire. These are the consequences of excessive fuel buildup resulting primarily from over 100 years of successful fire suppression activities. These effects are most pronounced in forest types that would have historically undergone frequent low-intensity fire, like much of the lower and mid-elevation forests in Yakima County. 

Overall Mitigation Activities 

There are many specific actions that will help improve safety in a particular area; however, there are also many potential mitigation activities that apply to all residents and all fuel types. General mitigation activities that apply to all of Yakima County are discussed below while area-specific mitigation activities are discussed within the individual risk assessments. 

The safest, easiest, and most economical way to mitigate unwanted fires is to stop them before they start. Generally, prevention actions attempt to prevent human-caused fires. Campaigns designed to reduce the number and sources of ignitions can take many forms. Traditional “Smokey Bear” type campaigns that spread the message passively through signage can be quite effective. Signs that remind people of the dangers of careless use of fireworks, burning when windy and leaving unattended campfires have been effective. Fire danger warning signs posted along access routes remind residents and visitors of the current conditions. It’s impossible to say just how effective such efforts actually are; however, the low costs associated with posting of a few signs is inconsequential compared to the potential cost of fighting a fire. 

• Burn Permits: Washington State Department of Natural Resources is the primary agency issuing burn permits in forested areas of Yakima County. The Washington DNR burn permits regulate silvicultural burning. Washington Department of Ecology (DOE) and the Yakima Regional Clean Air Agency are the primary agencies issuing burn permits for improved property and agricultural lands. All DOE burn permits are also subject to the fire restrictions issued by Washington DNR & local fire protection districts. Washington DNR has a general burning period referred to as “Rule Burn” wherein a written burn permit is not required in low to some moderate fire dangers. The timeframes for the Rule Burn are from October 16th to June 30th. Washington DNR allows for Rule Burns to be ten foot (10’) piles of forest, yard, and garden debris. From July 1st to October 15th , if Rule Burns are allowed, they are limited to four foot (4’) piles. 

• Defensible Space: Effective mitigation strategies begin with public awareness campaigns designed to educate homeowners of the risks associated with living in a flammable environment. Residents of Yakima County must be made aware that home defensibility starts with the homeowner. Once a fire has started and is moving toward a structure or other valued resources, the probability of that structure surviving is largely dependent on the structural and landscaping characteristics of the home. “Living with Fire, A Guide for the Homeowner” is an excellent tool for educating homeowners as to the steps to take in order to create an effective defensible space. Residents of Yakima County should be encouraged to work with local fire departments and fire management agencies within the county to complete individual home site evaluations. Home defensibility steps should be enacted based on the results of these evaluations. Beyond the homes, forest and rangeland management efforts must be considered to protect sensitive species and to slow the approach of a fire that threatens a community. 

• Evacuation Plans: Development of community evacuation plans is necessary to ensure an orderly evacuation in the event of a threatening wildland fire. Designation and posting of escape routes would reduce chaos and escape times for fleeing residents. Community safety zones should also be established in the event of compromised evacuations. Efforts should be made to educate homeowners through existing homeowners associations or creation of such organizations to act as conduits for this information. 

• Accessibility: Also of vital importance is the accessibility of the homes to emergency apparatus. If a home cannot be protected safely, firefighting resources will not jeopardize their firefighters to protect a structure. Thus, the fate of the home will largely be determined by homeowner actions prior to the event. In many cases, homes’ survivability can be greatly enhanced by following a few simple guidelines to increase accessibility such as widening or pruning driveways and creating a turnaround area for large vehicles. 

• Fuels Reduction: Recreational facilities such as campgrounds and boat launches should be kept clean and maintained. In order to mitigate the risk of an escaped campfire, escape proof fire rings and barbeque pits should be installed and maintained. Surface fuel accumulations in forests and shrubland can be kept to a minimum by periodically conducting pre-commercial thinning, clearing, pruning, and possibly controlled burns. Other actions that would reduce the fire hazard would be creating a fire resistant buffer along roads and power line corridors and strictly enforcing fire-use regulations. 

• Emergency Response: Once a fire has started, how much and how large it burns is often dependent on the availability of suppression resources. In most cases, rural fire departments are the first to respond and have the best opportunity to halt the spread of a wildland fire. For many districts, the ability to reach these suppression objectives is largely dependent on the availability of functional resources and trained individuals. Increasing the capacity of departments through funding and equipment acquisition can improve response efforts and subsequently reduce the potential for resource loss. 

• Other Activities: Other specific mitigation activities are likely to include improvement of emergency water supplies, access routes, and management of vegetation along roads and power line right-of-ways. Furthermore, building codes should be reviewed to provide for more fire-conscious planning and zoning and construction techniques such as using fire resistant siding, roofing, and decking in high risk areas. 

Highway 410 and 12 CWPP Risk Assessment 

The following is excerpted or summarized from the Highways 410 and 12 Community Wildfire Protection Plan (2005). 

The Highway 410 and 12 CWPP area is approximately 284,712 acres and lies west of the City of Yakima and Town of Naches in Yakima and Kittitas Counties, Washington. Areas within the Highway 410 and 12 corridors are defined by watersheds and sub-watersheds. These major drainages and their tributaries include: Tieton River, South Fork Tieton River, North Fork Tieton River, Rimrock Lake, Clear Lake, Naches River, lower Little Naches River, Rattlesnake Creek, Nile Creek, Bumping River, American River, and Bumping Lake. 

About 63% (178,893 acres) of the area is federally (USFS) managed. This represents approximately 32% of the entire Naches Ranger District. The character of residential development on private lands within the Highway 410 and 12 corridors is rural in nature. Yakima County tax roles indicate that the CWPP boundary includes 1,320 residences on all land ownerships. Much of the lower elevation areas have already been developed; thus, higher elevations less accessible areas are under more pressure for residential growth. 

Besides the rural, unincorporated areas of Yakima and Kittitas Counties, the planning area includes the communities (also unincorporated) of Goose Prairie, Cliffdell, and Rimrock Retreat. In addition to year-around established residences, recreation residences on federal land make up a large component of the dwellings within the CWPP area, accounting for over 500 homes plus organization camps. 

The Highway 410 and 12 CWPP encompasses a wide variety of terrain, elevation, aspects, and the varying fuels associated with forest and rangelands. Lower elevations and the eastern end of the planning area is largely shrub/steppe (grasses, bitterbrush, sagebrush). Farther westward and in higher elevations, the forest transitions from dry deciduous (Oregon white oak and cottonwood), through dry conifer (ponderosa pine, Yakima-fir) and mid-elevation conifer (grand fir, western larch, western hemlock), to high elevation wet conifer (mountain hemlock, pacific silver fir). 

Goose Prairie – This community is a mix of mostly recreational residences a few full time residents. Goose Prairie is home to Camp Fife, a large Boy Scout camp, typically housing more than 200 scouts and staff members during summer months. Telephone and electrical service are not provided to the area. Goose Prairie is very unique in being a private in-holding completely surrounded by Forest Service administered land. Within 400 feet and on all sides of the boundary of Goose Prairie is the William O. Douglas Wilderness Area. Access is one-way in, one-way out by way of Bumping River Road. Goose Prairie is not within a Fire District and structural protection may not be provided unless by contract with Yakima County Fire Protection District 14 (Nile). 

Cliffdell – The community of Cliffdell is comprised mostly of full time residents with a few recreation residences. Access is by way of State Highway 410, coming from Naches and Yakima to the east and Chinook Pass to the west. Whistlin’ Jack Lodge is a major tourist attraction within the community, providing cabins, a motel, a restaurant and lounge, and a convenience store with gasoline available. Electrical and telephone services are provided to Cliffdell. 

Nile Valley and Highway 410 – This rural area includes the privately-owned lands beginning at the intersection of State Highway 410 and U.S. Highway 12 and extending to the community of Cliffdell. Business interests include Gold Creek Station, Black Bear Resort, The Woodshed/Eagle Rock Resort and other privately owned businesses. Access is provided by Highway 410, the Nile Loop Road, and Old River Road. These roads serve as collectors for numerous arterials and Forest Roads. Growth continues in this area, and housing is being developed at higher elevations. Those being built at mid and upper slopes currently rely on cellular phones (limited coverage) and alternate energy sources such as wind, solar, and generator supplied power. The higher elevation homes are remote and not in a fire district. Services within the community include electricity, telephone, businesses, an organizational camp, a community center/library, Community Park, and a community church. 

Rimrock Retreat – The community of Rimrock Retreat is located on U.S. Highway 12 approximately 16 miles west of the Town of Naches. Residents are largely year-around. The community is served by electricity and telephone. Three businesses, all of which are protected by Yakima County Fire District #3, are located in Rimrock Retreat: Trout Lodge Restaurant and Motel, Getaway Sports, and Gameridge Motel. 

Highway 12 – This rural area includes the privately-owned lands beginning at the intersection of U.S. Highway 12 and State Highway 410 and extending to approximately mile post 170, two miles west of Rimrock Retreat. Fire District #3 provides protection for these widely scattered, yearround residents. 

Recreation Residences – Recreation residences are those in which privately owned cabins are established by lease on Forest Service administered land. The Naches Ranger District has the second highest number of recreation residences of any in the National Forest system. By permit, the structure may not be used as a principal place of residence. Amenities range across the spectrum from no plumbing/electricity/telephone to full service with all of the facilities of a typical family home. As these are on federal land, the land itself is protected by the U.S. Forest Service and the structures are protected by Yakima County Fire Protection Districts 3 (Naches) or 14 (Nile). Recreation residences are located along major travel routes off of U.S. Highway 12, State Highway 410, the Tieton Loop Road, and Bumping River Road. Recreation residences are typically within “Summer Home Groups” of 6-72 lots. A few groups contain only 1-3 lots. 

Wildfire Potential 

Vegetation within the CWPP boundary (excluding developed agricultural land) transitions from dry shrub/steppe at the lower elevations and at upper elevations of the eastern boundary of the planning area. These areas are dominated by antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentate), big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentate), crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), and Sandberg bluegrass (Poa Sandbergii Vasey). The shrub/steppe as well as the dry forested land has been invaded by the exotic cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). 

The driest forest type within the CWPP boundary is that which includes Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana). This type is unique in that it is limited within the extent of the OkanoganWenatchee National Forest to the lower reaches of the Naches and Tieton watersheds, is the hottest and most droughty of forest types, and marks the lower boundary of woodland and forest. The forest then transitions to ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and Yakima-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). This is the driest of the conifer forests within the CWPP boundary and will often include antelope bitterbrush, pinegrass, wheatgrasses and fescues, and cheatgrass. While grand fir (Abies grandis) is typically a mid-elevation tree, it occurs on dry sites on the southern portion of the Okanogan-Wenatchee National Forest. As a result of fire suppression, grand fir is a major contributor to the dense, overstocked stands, resulting in high fire susceptibility on dry forest sites. Moving west and gaining in elevation, grand fir, western larch (Larix occidentalis), and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) are common dominant trees. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) is also common in many stands. Upper elevations and the most western portion of the CWPP boundary may include Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis),m hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and possibly subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). This forest type is present in the western most of the recreation residences and in the upper elevations of the CWPP boundary. The mature condition of this forest type is closed canopy with abundant ladder fuels and ground fuel loadings. Because of this, fires tend to be a stand-replacing type. 

The Highway 410 and 12 corridors CWPP area, like other areas of Yakima County, is prone to severe weather conditions that can support extreme fire behavior. The landscape has many valleys with steep slopes and dense stands dominated by ponderosa pine, which are primarily less than 18 inches in diameter. Many stands have closed canopies and abundant ladder fuels. Continuous, tall underbrush also predominates. Insect infestations of western spruce budworm, mountain pine beetle, and/or fir engraver beetle are becoming more prevalent. 

Current fuel profiles reflect a high to moderate fire susceptibility within the forested vegetation types. For purposes of this discussion, susceptibility will be defined as a relative measure of the potential of a fire within a stand, to produce a stand replacement fire on a typical summer day. Included are such factors as vegetation type, crown closure, ladder fuels, vertical arrangement and horizontal continuity of a stand (stand structure), ground fuels, weather, and topography. 

Ingress-Egress 

Major access is provided within the planning area by U.S. Highway 12 and State Highway 410. County maintained roads, while easily accessed by low-clearance passenger cars, are limited to the Tieton Loop Road off of Highway 12, the Nile Loop Road with arterials off of Highway 410, Old River Road, and the Bumping River Road off of Highway 410. Forest roads are generally rock or native surface and are suitable for high-clearance or off-road vehicles. As development continues at mid and higher elevations, residents and emergency responders alike must be aware that roads accessing these properties may not be accessible by emergency vehicles. 

A number of private bridges were repaired over the Naches River following the flood of 1996. Residents have been notified that the fire department will not respond over these bridges unless a certified load limit has been posted on the bridge. 

Infrastructure 

There are numerous infrastructure components located within the Highway 410 and 12 corridors including U.S. Highway 12, State Highway 410, the North Fork Rattlesnake Creek municipal watershed, , Bumping Dam, Pacific Power and Benton Rural Electric Association powerlines, various telephone networks, numerous recreation sites, and the Little Bald, Cleman Mountain, and Bethel Ridge communication towers. 

Additional information on specific residential areas and infrastructural values at risk is included in the Highways 410 and 12 CWPP. 

Fire Protection 

Yakima County Fire Protection District 14 (Nile) is entirely within the Highways 410 and 12 CWPP boundary. Yakima County Fire Protection District 3 (Naches) extends to the Upper Tieton Loop Road within the CWPP boundary, but responds to the western county line for medical emergencies. The emphasis of these departments is to take action for fire suppression, rescue, and emergency medical and hazardous materials emergencies, and to provide fire prevention and education programs for the citizens in the response area. Nile and Naches Fire Departments respond within their districts and outside of district by request. The ability to respond to large wildland fires is limited by equipment and personnel. 

The community of Goose Prairie and all recreation residences are outside of any fire district providing structural protection. As such, they do not pay into a tax levy for fire protection. Fire districts are therefore prohibited from responding to these homes as this would constitute gifting of public funds. Some residents have entered into contracts with the nearest fire district to provide structural protection. 

The Washington State Department of Natural Resources and USDA Forest Service are the primary wildland firefighting agencies within the CWPP boundary. Through cooperative agreements, either agency is able to mobilize large amounts of personnel, equipment, aircraft, and logistical support. However, the actual number of firefighting resources stationed in the locale is small in relation to the area covered, and the CWPP boundary constitutes only a small portion of the district they must protect. Delays in the arrival of suppression forces of several hours to several days are likely, depending on the availability of these resources. These agencies are not equipped or trained to fight structure fires and do not provide protection of this nature. 

Potential Mitigation Activities 

Community members have expressed concern about fuel conditions and fire hazard. Of special concern is the current epidemic of western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis Freeman) and the increased fire hazard as a result of dying and dead trees. Treatment and prevention of such epidemics are ideally the same as treatments that would be conducted to reduce hazardous fire conditions, e.g., thinning of shade tolerant, fire susceptible trees species in overstocked dry forest types. Escape routes were also identified as a priority consideration. The Bumping River drainage and the community of Goose Prairie are at extreme risk due to threats associated with increased fire hazard as a result of western spruce budworm epidemic in the drainage, a high incidence of human caused and lightning fires, and a one-way-in, one-way-out escape route on a narrow, winding road. 

Communications are difficult along both corridors. Goose Prairie has no phone service. Cellular telephone providers at this time have no plans of installing cellular phone towers in the area, due to low profitability. Community members have identified the installation of cellular towers or other communication systems as a key component to improving fire protection to the residents and wildlands within the CWPP boundary. 

The Highways 410 and 12 CWPP has identified a number of evacuation centers, safety zones, command posts, and staging areas that will help direct residents and provide a safe work environment for firefighters in the event of a fire. Many of the residents are aware that emergency response times within this area can be 90 minutes or more, depending on location and time of day; thus preplanning and preparedness are critical. Additionally, the Highways 410 and 12 CWPP steering committee are actively involved with the Washington DNR and Forest Service in order to help develop fuels reduction projects in adjacent areas that will reduce the wildland fire risks on adjacent state and federal ownerships. Numerous action items and fuels projects are proposed in the current Highways 410 and 12 CWPP, most of which have been incorporated into the Yakima County CWPP planning process. 

Cowychee Mountain CWPP Risk Assessment 

The following is excerpted or summarized from the Cowychee Mountain Community Wildfire Protection Plan (2012). 

The overall planning area encompasses the suburban fringe of Yakima out to the forest zone of the western portion of the county. The CWPP focuses on the shrub steppe and rangelands lying west of Yakima comprising approximately 89,000 acres of land. The character of residential development on private lands within the Cowychee corridors is rural in nature. The Urban Growth Boundary defined jointly by the City of Yakima and Yakima County is westerly from the current incorporated city limits, indicating the ongoing pressure to expand into the shrub-steppe zone. Besides the rural, unincorporated areas of Yakima County, the planning area includes the communities of Cowiche, Tieton, West Vallley, Tampico, Naches Heights, and Ahtanum. In addition to year-around established residences and agricultural facilities, recreational residences are distributed throughout the planning area. 

Wildfire Potential 

The Cowychee Mountain CWPP encompasses a wide variety of terrain, elevation, aspects, and the varying fuels associated with suburban/rural fringe (small orchards, pastures) shrub-steppe, rangelands, and low elevation forest fringe. The eastern boundary of the CWPP separates the relatively developed suburban “ranchette” style acreage and irrigated agriculture from the less developed and larger acreage rangelands. The higher elevations to the west transition from shrublands to dry deciduous forest types (Oregon white oak and cotton-wood), through dry conifer forest types (ponderosa pine, Yakima-fir). There are stream corridors occupying the valley bottoms characterized by mixed riparian deciduous trees and shrubs. An important characteristic of the CWPP area is the prevailing wind direction. Coming largely as west-to-east winds, the shrubsteppe and forest fuels to the west, when ignited, are most likely to be fanned eastward, in the direction of the most concentrated residential zone. 

The shrub-steppe habitat in the CWPP planning area can generally be described as continuous expanses of native grasslands made up of a variety of bunch-type grasses (as opposed to continuous turf or sod-type grass), with an intermingling of native shrubs and flowering plants (forbs). The shrub-steppe zone is found in an arid landscape with rainfall ranging from 3 inches at the lowest elevations, up to 18 inches in higher elevations, generally at the gradient where annual moisture can start supporting woodlands. 

Prior to the many changes in habitats brought about by intensive management over the last 150 years, the dryer woodlands at the upper edge of the shrub-steppe zone were maintained by frequent, low intensity fire (fires happening every 5-35 years). Although it seems logical that fires in the arid shrub-steppe would be even more frequent, ecologists have discovered that the natural interval for shrub-steppe fire were much less frequent—ranging anywhere from 50 to 240 years. Given this longer period expected between shrub-steppe fires, current conditions are far outside the expected range. Fires ranging from 34,000 to over 160,000 acres have occurred in the shrub-steppe zone of south central Washington every 2 to 4 of the last 15 years. 

One of the most pervasive and far-reaching threats to the shrub-steppe habitat is the spread of invasive species, particularly the widespread establishment of exotic annual grasses (such as cheatgrass). Compared to native perennial bunchgrass, cheatgrass creates a continuous cover of fine, highly flammable fuels that dries out early in the summer and remains as a dry fuel source much longer in the fall. As a result, this invasive grass greatly increases a site’s fire risk. 

In short, sparse, dry climate grass fuel types, grass is generally short, either naturally or by livestock grazing, and may be sparse or discontinuous. This is the least volatile of the naturally occurring (flammable) fuel types within the Cowychee Mountain CWPP area. Even with a 30 mph wind and slope of 60%, firefighters would have little trouble containing a fire utilizing direct attack. Flame lengths are within capabilities of typical direct attack actions and fire spread tends to stay below 50 feet per minute (about ½ mile per hour), regardless of wind speed or slope. Fuel reduction/restoration treatments should focus on protecting and maintaining this ecotype as a naturally occurring fire break. 

In low load, dry climate grass fuel types, the primary carrier of fire is grass, though small amounts of fine dead fuel may be present. Shrubs, if present, do not affect fire behavior. The patchy nature of this fuel type make it wind and/or slope dependent to achieve a larger size. In a zero-slope/zerowind scenario a fire would have a forward rate of spread of only 3 feet per minute, growing to only 3 acres in an hour and making it well within the capabilities of local fire departments. However, this fuel type is very reactive to wind. With a 10 mph wind, fires can grow to nearly 1,000 acres in 1 hour with a forward rate of spread of 225 feet per minute (about 2½ mph). A defensible space of 50 feet or more around structures will greatly assist local fire departments in protection efforts. Fuel reduction/restoration treatments should focus on maintaining the fire behavior characteristics of this type in their current condition. 

In moderate load, dry climate grass fuel types, the primary carrier of fire is continuous, dry grass. This fuel type occurs naturally within the Cowychee Mountain CWPP area in small patches, but also represents past burned areas that are now dominated by cheatgrass. This fuel model may overrepresent flame lengths for a nearly pure cheatgrass stand, but does a good job representing the rate of spread. Flame length and rate of spread are well represented by stands that are a mix of native bunch grasses and cheatgrass. Fires occurring in this fuel type can quickly exceed 10,000 acres with light to moderate wind or slope. In a more practical point of view, a mid-summer fire will probably exceed the size of the stand before local fire crews are able to respond. A defensible space of more than 120 feet may be desirable for structures bordering this fuel type. Fuel reduction treatments should focus on restoring stands by reducing or eliminating cheatgrass and promoting native bunch grasses and shrubs. 

In moderate load, dry climate grass-shrub fuel types, the primary carrier of fire is grass and shrubs combined. Shrubs are 1 to 3 feet high, grass load is moderate. Spread rate is high; flame length is moderate. With a wind of 5 mph and/or moderately steep slopes, fires in this fuel type can quickly exceed the capabilities of handcrews and engines. Structure protection can be successful if home owners have established a defensible space of twenty feet or more. A wind of 10 mph or more, even on flat ground, can push a fire in this fuel type to exceed fire protection capabilities unless a defensible space of 100 feet or more has been established. Fires can spread rapidly and exceed 700 acres on a flat slope with a 10 mph wind. The fire front can be expected to move at approximately 180 feet per minute (about 2 mph). A 20 mph wind can push fires to exceed 2,500 acres in an hour at forward rate of spread of nearly 500 feet per minute (about 6 mph). Fires growing at this rate can quickly exceed the capabilities of local fire departments to protect all homes and structures being threatened. 

In moderate load, dry climate shrub fuel types, the primary carrier of fire is woody shrubs and shrub litter. This fuel type has a moderate fuel load, with bunch grasses between shrubs. This is the most volatile of the unaltered fuel types within the Cowychee Mountain CWPP area. It is both wind and slope reactive, and can move quickly into the Very Active and Extreme fire behavior categories. Fire can move moderately fast, with high flame lengths and intensity. With no wind or slope, fires can exceed 100 acres in an hour. A 10 mph wind can push a fire to exceed 3,000 acres in an hour. Flame lengths of 13 feet or more could be expected. These flame lengths will most often require an indirect attack, with holding (suppression) actions taking place from roads or ridgetops. A defensible space of 100 feet or more will assist local fire departments in structure protection. While a problematic fuel type as far as structure protection is concerned, it is also one of the most important and endangered ecosystems within the landscape. Fuel reduction/restoration treatments should focus on isolating this fuel type to provide protection to adjacent homeowners and also to protect the ecotype from wildfire Infrastructure The Cowychee CWPP has identified numerous infrastructure values at risk including flood control structures, elk fencing, public facilities, communication towers, and multiple highways and secondary access routes. Fire Protection Fire protection within the CWPP boundary is supplied by numerous agencies, each with its own charge, capabilities, and limitations. Cooperative agreements exist that allow all agencies to work together to best protect lives, property, and natural resources. Local county, state, and federal agencies have forged positive working relations. Yakima County Fire Protection District 12 (West Valley), District 1 (Highland) and District 9 (Naches Heights) are the primary first responders within the CWPP boundary. The emphasis of these departments is to take action for fire suppression, rescue, and emergency medical and hazardous materials emergencies, and to provide fire prevention and education programs for the citizens in the response area. All three Fire Departments respond within their districts and outside of district by request. The ability to respond to large wildland fires is limited by equipment and personnel. The DNR and USFS are the primary wildland firefighting agencies west of the CWPP boundary. Through co-operative agreements, either agency is able to mobilize large amounts of personnel, equipment, aircraft, and logistical support. However, the actual number of firefighting resources stationed in the locale is small in relation to the area covered and the CWPP boundary constitutes only a small portion of the district they protect. Delays in the arrival of suppression forces of several hours to several days are likely, depending on the availability of these resources. These agencies are not equipped or trained to fight structure fires and do not pro-vide protection of this nature. Potential Mitigation Activities The Cowychee Mountain CWPP has identified a number of evacuation routes and centers, safety zones, command posts, and staging areas that will help direct residents and provide a safe work environment for firefighters in the event of a fire. Water for firefighting is limited within the CWPP boundary in comparison to many areas throughout the western United States, or even in eastern Washington. The area lacks major rivers and lakes that are commonly used as water sources for drafting and for aircraft. The Fire Districts have inventoried and mapped water sources on lands under their jurisdiction. Fire Districts would benefit from the development of ponds and fire hydrant systems in and along the irrigated lands. The CWPP members will continue working on the implementation of the action items by hosting defensible space and home protection workshops and by forming a Community Emergency Response Team. Many landowners have become more aware of the risk coming from wildland fires based on large fires within the CWPP planning area. The surrounding Cowiche Mountain landowners have worked with federal and state agencies for post-fire assistance grants, and the Cowiche Canyon Conservancy began working on its lands and with adjacent landowners to initiate restoration activities. The Yakima County Fire Marshall’s office has committed to launching Firewise and other defensible space programs in the area, and the CWPP group plans on seeking additional resources through National Fire Plan Grants and Western States Grants that can provide funding for fuels reduction and prevention and education programs. Yakama Nation Risk Assessment The Yakama Nation occupies portions of Yakima, Klickitat, and Lewis Counties in south central Washington State. The Reservation is bounded on the west by the crest of the Cascade Mountains, and on the east by the Yakima River. Ahtanum Creek serves as the northern boundary. A line from Greyback to Satus Pass to the Horse Heaven Hills to where it meets the Yakima River serves as the southern boundary. The Yakama Reservation encompasses 1,377,638 acres. Land ownership is comprised of tribal trust lands with individual tribal allotments held in trust and fee patent lands intermixed throughout the Reservation’s agricultural and forest areas. Within the agricultural area, a rural setting of ranches and homes characterize an area of checkerboard ownership covering 191,060 acres. Major population centers on the Reservation and their fire risk: High Moderate Low Wapato Fort Simcoe White Swan Medicine Valley Yakima River corridor North/South Ahtanum Pumphouse Road South/West Satus Tulie Road Wildfire Potential The relatively low lying, gentle landscape of the eastern Reservation contrasts sharply with the high elevation, rugged western lands near the Cascade Crest. Between these two extremes are an abundance of different landforms. The Yakama Reservation can be divided into three major ecotypes as follows. Forestland. The forestland ecotype is the most varied. These variations are mainly driven by the significant gradients in precipitation and topography. Forest types include oak woodlands, pine, pine-fir, mixed fir, true fir, and subalpine. Correspondingly, all fire regimes are well represented. The forestland is managed predominantly for commercial timber. Forest resource values at risk to wildfire are high. Fuel treatments focus on the pine and pine-fir forest types. These forest types border the rangeland and are typically classified as Fire Regime 1. Mechanical and prescribed fire treatments are used in combination to restore these areas to more open, and hence more fire resilient, historic conditions. Rangeland. The rangeland is classified as shrub-steppe composed of sagebrush, its variants, and grasses. Fire Regimes are III (35-100+ years; mixed severity) and IV )35-100+ years; stand replacing). Fuel treatments are limited. Mechanical, chemical, and prescribed fire treatments are used in combination to minimize the spread of invasive species and restore critical lowland shrub-steppe habitat. All areas rising from the valley floor have high potential for rapid fire spread and can quickly grow to excessive size causing a threat beyond the capabilities of fire districts to manage with local resources. Agricultural. The agricultural zone is predominantly active farmland. It is Fire Regime I (0-35 years; low severity). Rural communities are immediately adjacent or in close proximity to the rangeland and active farm land is intermix with areas of natural vegetation. From a fire protection standpoint, these intermix areas have a high risk to life and property. Fuels treatments in these areas are numerous. Mechanical treatments include disced and mowed fuel breaks around rural residences and developments. Prescribed fire near field burning has also proven to be an effective treatment as most fires result from fireworks or arson. Ingress-Egress Interstate 82, a major transportation route, travels the length of the Yakima Valley north of the Yakama Reservation. State Route 97 extends southward to Goldendale and northward to Union Gap while State Route 22 travels eastward to Mabton and northward to Interstate 82 from the Reservation. State Route 220 extends from Toppenish west to White Swan. Infrastructure There are several small communities and tribal enterprises within and surrounding the Reservation. U.S. Highway 12/Interstate 82 travels along the Reservation’s northern border while U.S. Highway 97, State Highways 22 and 223, and numerous secondary routes provide access throughout the area. There are also powerlines, communication tower sites, rural airstrips, and a complex irrigation system that are critical to the community. Fire Protection The Yakama Agency protects 1.2 million acres from uncontrolled fires and may respond to fires in mutual areas in coordination with Yakima County Fire Protection District #5. The Bureau of Indian Affairs, Portland Office, has entered into cooperative agreements with the U.S. Forest Service’s Wenatchee and Gifford Pinchot National Forests, Washington DNR, West Valley Fire (Yakima County Fire District 12), and Yakima County Fire District 5. These agreements provide that an area of one mile depth on either side of mutual boundaries is a common protective zone. They also may provide resources during extreme emergencies and may make available suppression labor and equipment for fires that require extended attack. Fire District resources are available under rental agreements with BIA. Approximately 360 square miles of the Yakama Reservation is within the protection of Yakima County Fire District 5, which has stations dispersed throughout the area. Occasional assistance is provided by municipalities or Yakama Agency resources when serious threats to life, property, structures, or natural resources exist. Fire suppression on trust land requires coordination with an Agency Resource Advisor. Potential Mitigation Activities Fire prevention and education are on-going activities on the Reservation including school programs and exhibits at local community events. Yakama Fire Prevention has become a member of the Interagency Cross Cascades Prevention Coop as well as the Yakima Valley Fire Adapted Communities Coalition in order to maintain good working relationships with other fire management organizations in the area. The National Fire Danger Rating System is used on the Reservation. Fire Danger Rating signs are maintained and current information is displayed at entry points into the forest. A burn permit system has been in place since 2005. The burn permit describes the where, when, who, why, and special measures of the burn. Increased education of burn permits needs to take palce and greater awareness of safe burn barrel use will reduce the number of fire use ignitions. Yakima Training Center Risk Assessment The following is excerpted or summarized from the Fort Lewis GTA FEIS (2010). Yakima Training Center at the Joint Base Lewis-McChord provides training support for transient units and organizations by sustaining training lands, range complexes, and support facilities in order to enhance readiness. The installation's customers include not only the Joint Base LewisMcChord and Army National Guard units, but also Special Operations Command, Marine Corps, Air Force, Navy, and Coast Guard units, plus local and federal Law Enforcement and allied forces from Canada and Japan. The IWFMP establishes wildfire risks, management goals, and strategies to be used to reduce the risk of fires on the installation and improve YTC’s ability to reduce fire losses. Wildfire Potential Like much of the lower Columbia River Basin, YTC is characterized by shrub-steppe vegetation. The shrub-dominated overstories typically support species of sagebrush and other shrubs, and the understories support perennial bunchgrasses, such as bluebunch wheatgrass and Sandberg’s bluegrass. Shrublands are typically dominated by big sagebrush, with bunchgrasses and annual and perennial forbs in the understory. Grasslands are similar to shrublands, except that the shrub component is greatly reduced or absent, has been eliminated by some type of disturbance (e.g., fire, military training), or is represented by rabbitbrush, which may sprout vigorously after a fire. Dwarf shrublands, typically found in areas with shallow, stony soils, are dominated by Sandberg’s bluegrass and a layer of dwarf shrub species including buckwheat and stiff sagebrush. Wildfire poses a significant threat to the sensitive ecosystems, cultural sites, and training lands of the Army. Army training activities require the use of munitions and weapons systems that often increase the chance of wildfire ignition and may damage important resources. On YTC, most fires are started by military training activities (both ground-based and from helicopters) including live-fire exercises, use of tracer rounds, explosive ordinance, and some aspects of maneuver training. These fires primarily start on existing ranges in the CIA and dud areas. While most fires are contained in these areas, there is the risk of a fire escaping and burning training areas, as well as areas surrounding the installation. Wildfires have burned an average of approximately 9,000 acres annually for the past 25 years; however, annual burn acreages are highly variable and have ranged from 50 acres in 1991 to 63,296 acres in 1996 (this figure includes approximately 15,000 acres that burned off-Post). Some areas have been re-burned repeatedly. High fire loss years have occurred in the last 25 years. These include 1984 (27,921 acres), 1987 (28,070 acres, of which approximately 4,011 acres burned offPost), 1996 and 2003 (34,827 acres, of which 146 acres burned off-Post). Large fire loss years appear to be cyclical; during most years, between 1,500 and 6,000 acres are burned. Since the large-scale fire in 1996, the cumulative average of burned areas at YTC has declined due to enhancements of fire management policy related to pre-suppression and suppression activities, implementation of a risk assessment, improved suppression resources, and improved personnel training. According to available data, through 1996, a cumulative average of approximately 11,335 acres burned annually due to fires originating at YTC; from 1997 through 2008, this cumulative average annual acreage decreased to approximately 8,866 acres. Ingress-Egress YTC and the nearby City of Yakima, with its surrounding suburban communities, are accessed via I–82, the major north-south interstate freeway in the area. Near the training center, I–82 is a divided freeway and has two travel lanes in each direction. The primary access is via Firing Center Road (Exit #26), which is the main Access Control Point (ACP) onto the Post. The second access from the Military Road exit (Exit #11) provides an entry point for military convoys; otherwise, it is typically gated and locked. Additionally, access onto YTC is available via E. Pomona Road. However, this access is not used unless freight is brought in by rail. At other times, it remains gated and locked. E. Pomona Road crosses I–82, but does not access the interstate. Another secondary access is from Huntzinger Road on the east side of the Post. If Exit #26 is closed, Exit #29 at E. Selah Road, which runs parallel to I–82 and leads north to Firing Center Road, may be used. Infrastructure The Cantonment Area serves as the administrative center for most training activities at YTC, except for range management, which is located at Range Control. Residential areas include permanent bachelor officer quarters. Administrative areas house buildings for offices, headquarters, classrooms, and other administrative functions. Commercial uses are limited to the Post Exchange and restaurant/club uses. Light industrial uses include warehousing, motor pool, and maintenance shops. Fire Protection It is YTC’s policy to suppress all wildfires on the installation, with the exceptions of those that occur in impact or dud areas and those that occur within the limits of established ranges where prior management actions have been implemented to contain fires, such as pre-burn areas. Fires occurring in impact areas are only suppressed when they threaten to escape the impact area boundary, and are only suppressed via aerial assets. However, ground suppression personnel are allowed to conduct operations along the outer perimeters of impact areas. YTC has a current mutual aid agreement with all local upper valley fire department jurisdictions and Hanford Fire to assist with wildfire suppression requirements (ground and aerial), as well as structural fires. With this mutual aid agreement, YTC has more than 13 separate Fire Protection Districts and Municipalities that can be called upon during emergency operations. Potential Mitigation Activities YTC has adopted a Fire Risk Management Assessment to evaluate the risk of starting uncontrolled fires from training activities during the fire danger season (May 15 through October 31). This assessment calculates fire risk at YTC based on values assigned to four areas: · fire danger rating, military activity (i.e., the types of munitions and/or pyrotechnic devices intended for use on a given day),·the availability and locations of firefighting assets, and special considerations (e.g., status of pre-burn activities, proximity to sage-grouse habitat, time of day of the proposed training). In addition, due to the severity and extent of the 1996 fire, YTC has developed a Pre-Incident Plan for the CIA and MPRC. Historically, fires originating in these areas have been extreme, consuming large areas rapidly. The Pre-Incident Plan establishes a fire management boundary along the Umtanum Ridge to the south of the CIA and MPRC and the Columbia River to the east. It prescribes a series of actions to be followed to contain the fire within the pre-determined fire management boundary. This plan also sets forth an annual prescribed burn plan that includes blacklining along improved roads that parallel the south and southeast boundaries of the CIA and an additional north-south route east of the CIA. Annual mechanical maintenance of the ridgeline road extending along Umtanum Ridge is another feature of the Pre-Incident Plan. YTC conducts annual maintenance of more than 200 miles (322 km) of firebreaks to ensure fuel breaks are strategically located to compartmentalize fires, particularly in areas where fire hazards are high (such as along the CIA boundary) and along the installation boundary. Firebreaks also provide access to remote areas of the installation for suppression teams. In addition, enhancement of the installation’s road network has added more than 300 miles of roads that act as firebreaks. Annual maintenance is conducted mechanically and through aerial application of herbicides. Chemical maintenance occurs in the fall (October) or spring (March or April), while mechanical maintenance occurs late spring through late summer. Firebreak maintenance activities are described in detail in the YTC Firebreak Maintenance Plan. To reduce the risk of wildfires, YTC conducts prescribed burning (or, pre-burning) in areas where fires tend to recur due to training activities and in areas with a potential for fire escape. An annual prescribed burn plan is developed by the YTC Fire Department, DPTMS, and DES to identify areas and priorities for pre-burn implementation. Areas treated with prescribed burning include those in and around targetry and target movers, small impact areas, and other small areas where there is a high probability of ignition and rapid spread or chronic recurrence exists. At YTC, prescribed burns are implemented in late spring through late summer, depending on the objectives of the burn. Early season burns reduce or eliminate fuels for the current fire season; the benefits of late season burns carry over to the following year. Wenas The Wenas area is primarily defined by the Wenas Valley extending northwest from Selah in north central Yakima County and includes the southwest-facing slopes of Umtanum Ridge and the northeast-facing slopes of the Cleman Mountains. Much of this area is managed by the Washington DNR in a checkerboard pattern with private landowners. The narrow Wenas Creek valley from Selah to Wenas Lake has been developed for agricultural purposes with irrigation water from the Lake. The valley upstream from the Lake is very rural with scattered residences extending almost to the County line. Wildfire Potential The Wenas Valley and associated foothills are characterized by shrub-steppe vegetation where agricultural or other development hasn’t altered the vegetation. The shrub-dominated overstories typically support species of sagebrush and other shrubs, and the understories support perennial bunchgrasses, such as bluebunch wheatgrass and Sandberg’s bluegrass. Shrublands are typically dominated by big sagebrush, with bunchgrasses and annual and perennial forbs in the understory. Dwarf shrublands, typically found in areas with shallow, stony soils, are dominated by Sandberg’s bluegrass and a layer of dwarf shrub species including buckwheat and stiff sagebrush. Conifer forest dominated by ponderosa pine becomes more prevalent towards the headwaters of Wenas Creek including Dipping Vat Canyon and Cow Canyon as well as the heavily dissected canyons of Cleman Mountain. The pine and associated grass and shrub understory becomes thicker in draws and at higher elevations as water is more available and eventually transitions to a Douglas-fir forest type at the highest elevations. Fires in these fuel types would tend to spread very quickly and burn at low to mixed severities. Fire frequency is relatively frequent occurring approximately every 35 years. Ingress-Egress The Wenas Valley is accessed by North Wenas Road as well as several other secondary access roads in the developed areas, most of which are paved or graveled. There is limited access to the mid and upper slopes of Umtanum Ridge and Cleman Mountain. Black Canyon Road and North Wenas Road provide access points to the Umtanum Ridge area while most of the canyons on the west side of the Wenas Valley have gravel or dirt access roads. Infrastructure The primary infrastructure in the Wenas area is the irrigation network within the valley itself. There are also several rural airstrips. Fire Protection Yakima Valley Fire District #2 provides structural and wildland fire protection to the majority of residents and infrastructure within the Wenas Valley and Selah areas. The District’s coverage in the Wenas Valley is limited to the residences in the valley bottom. The Washington DNR provides supplemental wildland fire protection on State land and private forest lands in the surrounding area; however, the Department has limited resources staged in Yakima County and relies on the local fire district for initial attack. Additionally, the DNR does not provide structural protection. Potential Mitigation Activities Mitigation measures needed in the agricultural landscape include maintaining a defensible space around structures and access routes that lie adjacent to annual crops and other wildland fuels. Around structures, this includes maintaining a green or plowed space, mowing weeds and other fuels away from outbuildings, pruning and/or thinning larger trees, using fire resistant construction materials, and locating propane tanks, fuel tanks and firewood away from structures. Roads and driveways accessing rural residents may or may not have adequate road widths and turnouts for firefighting equipment depending on when the residences were constructed. Performing road inventories in high risk areas to document and map their access limitations will improve firefighting response time and identify areas in need of enhancement. Primitive or abandoned roads that provide key access to remote areas should also be maintained in such a way that enables access for emergency equipment so that response times can be minimized. Roads can be made more fire resistant by frequently mowing along the edges or spraying weeds to reduce the fuels. Aggressive initial attack on fires occurring along travel routes will help ensure that these ignitions do not spread to nearby home sites. Maintaining developed drafting sites, increasing access to water from irrigation facilities, and developing other water resources throughout the agricultural landscape will increase the effectiveness and efficiency of emergency response during a wildfire.